The nation of Cuba faces an exciting new development: A movement for liberty. Cuba has a history of being sought after, belonging to the Spanish, invaded by the British, traded to the USA, and independent yet carefully watched over by first the USA and then the USSR. We will focus on the Independence Era to understand the unique situation of this people and their passions which have seemingly reared their head once more.

Quick Background:

The island of Cuba had settlers from the 4th Millennium BC in the form of various indigenous groups (the Taino, the Guanajatabey, and the Ciboney). These peoples existed up until the Spanish colonization, which brought with it the goal of conversion and conquest. Through force, the Spanish gained a foothold in Cuba in what is now known as Havana. Havana changed hands during the Seven Years War (1756-1763) when the British were able to capture Western Cuba. Quickly, it changed hands back to the Spaniards after the Treaty of Paris engineered a trade of Cuba for Spanish Florida. The natives fell prey to disease and often ran into the wilderness to avoid forced labor, causing the Spaniards to import black slaves from surrounding islands in their control. The importance of Cuba was recognized after the slave revolution in Haiti, opening the sugar cane market for the eager Spaniards. From here, an economic boom occurred, the Spanish quickly invested in infrastructure in order to better transport the very highly demanded sugar cane they produced for most of the world.

The Seeds of Liberty:

The Cuban populace was not blind to the significance of their era. The British Colonies had declared their independence from the crown, the French Revolution was a success and it’s participants still ran on the fervor of liberty, and closest to home, the Haitian revolution of 1803 was an example with many similarities to their own climate. The free black, Nicolas Morales, wanted racial equality and the abolition of fiscal burdens levied by the Spanish, yet was arrested quickly. Another leader by the name of Joaquin Infante drafted a constitution in 1812 and declared independence, but was also quickly apprehended. Another incident of note that year was the Aponte Conspiracy, another free black man by the name of Jose Antonio Aponte led a slave revolt in order to achieve freedom for the enslaved. His importance comes from leading a revolt made up of both freed blacks and what were called “people of color” which usually meant mixed race groups. This is considered a significant movement towards the removal of racial classification in the pursuit of liberty in Cuba. Fuel was further added from across the ocean, as Spain went through a constitutional reform and an absolutist government over the course of a few years. The absolutists curtailed Cuban liberty, changing their methods of national defense and alienating soldiers of their now disbanded militia. Though the Spanish crown in the form of Ferdinand VII signed a decree to abolish the slave trade in 1820, the process was not uniform and some colonies continued the practice. Ultimately, it led to a booming slavery population as owners hurried to increase their labor force while they could.

Here independence movements and abolitionist movements often overlapped, and leaders like Jose Antonio Saco (1797-1879) wanted freedom from the Spanish crown and freedom for the slaves on the island of Cuba. Yet, the Spanish continued their repression, continuing their practice of underrepresenting the interests of the Cubans. However, a secondary movement also arose which saw value in being annexed by the USA, where slavery was not being challenged as viciously just yet. Figures as prominent as John Quincy Adams and James Monroe were vocally against the mingling of European powers in affairs of lands in the Americas. The most prominent attempt at liberating the Cubans from the Spanish came from Venezuelan General Narciso Lopez, who led four expeditions from the United States (supported by expansionist minded southerner Americans who wanted Cuba as a Slave State in the Union) in an attempt to overthrow the Spanish. He lacked popular support, and at the end of his fourth expedition in 1851, he was executed. The flag he flew is used by Cubans today.

The Ten Years War:

The issues of slavery, autonomy from the Spanish crown, and an increasing number of examples of revolutionary fervor abroad at at home eventually culminated into the first attempt at independence, now dubbed the Ten Years War. The Revolutionary Committee of Bayamo was founded in the year 1867. The leader of such a movement would be among Cuba’s wealthiest, Francisco Vicente Aguilera. Though he had inherited the estate of his father alongside his slaves, Francisco is said to have never bought any more. Francisco would go into the war taking on a more overseas diplomatic role, appealing to Cubans outside of Cuba to send materials for the war effort and try to garner favor with foreign political figures. Beyond this, he also freed his 500 slaves, a majority of which joined the war effort as soldiers.
The most prominent figure of the Ten Years War within the borders of Cuba was Carlos Manuel de Cespedes. Cespedes and his followers within the Revolutionary Committee had decided the date for revolution would be October 14th, 1867. This was not to be, as the Spanish were well aware of Cespedes’ anti-colonialist beliefs and they moved to apprehend him. Cespedes had already known this, and the date of revolution was moved up to October 10th, where he called his slaves and asked them to join the revolution. This date is commemorated as the Grito de Yara (Cry of Yara), which is seen as a national holiday. So begins the first serious attempt at revolution in Cuba.
Through Cespedes’ 10th of October Manifesto, we can see what the “Father of the Fatherland” wanted to attain with such a bold move against a military that was much larger and much better funded. Here he talks of freedom of press, freedom of assembly, the liberation of slaves (along with compensation to those who required it to comply with the liberation), more participation of the governed in the creation of law, and freedom from Spanish control. Maximo Gomez was head of the Cuban army for a time, but eventually Cespedes came to the position instead. At these early stages, Jose Marti was arrested and sentenced to hard labor by the Spanish. Though not a prominent figure in the Ten Years War, his revolutionary beliefs would stay until his importance was immortalized in the later Cuban War for Independence.
Cespedes led the revolutionary forces along with American Confederacy veteran General Thomas Jordan. Though they saw success, Jordan eventually expended his forces and had to return to the USA. The Spanish military utilized it’s tactic of relocation, sometimes called ethnic cleansing, wherein families that resided in hotbeds of revolutionary sympathies were forcibly shipped to other regions to weaken the support rebels could receive. The added demoralizing effect of having loved ones shipped out away from soldiers’ homes also was a consideration. Cespedes reassigned Maximo Gomez, and as the war continued even more capable commanders were revealed. In 1869, a constitutional assembly was held in order to separate the martial and the civil organizations of the rebels. One for military command and law, and the other for civilian affairs. Cespedes was elected as the first president of the republic at arms.
The rebel forces were not unified, as seen when enough members who were opposed to Cespedes were inaugurated into positions within the new assembly and deposed Cespedes. The Spanish succeeded in killing him on February 27th, 1874. After the death of Cespedes, the Cuban revolutionary forces began to decline. In addition, once the Third Carlist War ended in Spain in 1876, the army was more able to focus on the Cuban insurrection. The result was an overwhelming number of soldiers.
The continued decline of the insurgent eventually led to the remaining members to try for peace. Ultimately, the pact of Zanjon was signed, signaling an end to the assembly. Small forces still protested the Spanish, but the Ten Year War was over.

Things to come:

Though the Cubans failed in their efforts to reach independence and reap the liberal reforms that came with it, their spirit was far from broken. This was but one effort, and although the first large mobilization, the Cuban peoples had been protesting and rebelling for years before. The unjust taxation, slavery, and lack of political representation all fueled them. Those within the Ten Years War were far from finished with the possibility of revolution. In fact, it produced many men ready to fight for it another day, sooner rather than later.